Overall Program Organization
There are three separate intervention components in Fast Track, each with its own set of manuals and training programs:
- PATHS Curriculum that teachers deliver in their classrooms (the universal intervention component),
- Fast Track Friendship Groups that Education Coordinators deliver to children screened into the “high-risk” group, and
- Fast Track Parent Groups that Family Coordinators deliver to the parents of children screened into the “high-risk” group.
In this document, we provide some general information about the Fast Track Program, followed by specific information about the cost, training, and staffing requirements associated with each of the three main components.
Screening Process to Identify Aggressive Children for the High-Risk Group
The Fast Track study used a two-step procedure to screen children and identify children with elevated aggression who qualified for the Friendship Group and Parent Group programs. First, teachers rated all kindergarten children using a 10-item scale describing aggressive-disruptive behaviors (the Authority Acceptance scale of the Teacher Observation of Classroom Adaptation-Revised [TOCA-R], Werthamer-Larsson, Kellam, & Wheeler, 1991). Then parents of children who scored in the top 40% were interviewed and completed a 24-item rating scale describing aggressive-disruptive and oppositional behaviors at home. The two sets of ratings from teacher and parent were standardized and combined for a total screen score. Children at each site were invited into the project on the basis of this screen score, starting at the top and moving downward, until all places were filled. Since that time, we have analysed the validity of the initial screening data, and found that the parent ratings did little to add predictive validity. Hence, one could also use teacher ratings alone in the screening process. For most of the Fast Track outcomes, we do not find moderation of effects based on initial severity, suggesting that there is not a specific “thresh-hold” at which the program works. The exception is that we have found moderation for future diagnoses of conduct disorder through grade 12, which are reduced by Fast Track only for children who scored in the top 3-5% of the normative sample on the initial screen (that is, the children at the very highest risk within the high-risk group).
Initial rates of aggressive behavior problems (and rates of later criminal activity) were lower at the rural site than the urban sites. So, we screened a larger population there, and set the initial teacher screen criterion higher (top 25-30%). In general, the program is designed for children who are showing significant behavior problems, although not necessarily at a clinical level, but including elevations that are both sub-clinical and clinical in severity.
Staffing Requirements
Classroom teachers deliver the PATHS Curriculum; all classroom teachers are eligible for PATHS training with no additional requirements regarding skills/qualifications required.
Education Coordinators who run the Friendship Groups typically have either teaching backgrounds (with a keen interest and training/experience working with at-risk students) or they have backgrounds as school counselors. In either case, they must have experience working with groups of students, experience with high-risk/aggressive students, and experience working in school settings. Training/understanding of the principles of social-emotional learning and behavior management is desirable. We estimate that a leader puts in 5 hours per group session to run one Friendship Group program; but can run concurrent Friendship Groups with an additional 2-3 hours per group. That’s because the time to learn and prepare for a new session is a one-time investment, so the time per group is less if the individual is running more than one group. More detail on Friendship Group leaders and staff is attached.
Fast Track Disseminations
Since the original Fast Track study, there have been several disseminations of the program. Fast Track was delivered through Safe Schools, Healthy Student grants in the United States in Tyrone, PA and in Durham, NC. Grants also funded a large-scale dissemination in Perth, Australia. Provincial funding and private donations funded a long-term implementation at Hull Children’s Services in Calgary, Alberta. Those projects have since ended, although Hull still provides Friendship Group and Parent Group components of Fast Track. In addition, there are several on-going disseminations that use various components of and adaptations of Fast Track. First, the PATHS curriculum is widely disseminated as a stand-alone universal program. Second, the PATHS Curriculum along with the Fast Track Friendship Group are currently being used in multiple sites in Great Britain (e.g., London, Northern Ireland, Wales, and Scotland) as part of the PATHS Plus program funded through the Realizing Ambition initiative http://www.pathseducation.com/what-is-paths/international-paths-spotlight In addition, the Fast Track Friendship Groups are used by Barnardos of Ireland.
Delivery Systems
In the Fast Track trial, all programs were directed by university-based teams at each of four sites (e.g., Durham, NC, Nashville, TN, rural PA, and Seattle, WA). The PATHS Curriculum was delivered by classroom teachers in their regular school contexts. The Parent and Friendship Groups were held at local schools during after-school, evening, or weekend hours. Fast Track staff (Family Coordinators and Education Coordinators) led the groups, and additional staff were hired to provide child care. Home visits were made by Family Coordinators. Peer-pairing sessions were led by paraprofessional staff during the school day, supervised by the Education Coordinators. In subsequent disseminations, Fast Track components have been delivered in different ways in different contexts. Friendship Groups are being delivered in after-school programs (Barnardos of Ireland) and during the school day with integrated peer partners (PATHS Plus Programme, Barnardos of Great Britain).
PATHS Curriculum
Contact Person: Mark Greenberg, Ph.D. at mxg47@psu.edu or Dorothy Morelli at dorothy@pathseducation.com
| A. Program costs | |
| A1. Unit cost for implementation with source of data | This is complicated to estimate because it depends on scale. For example, in a small school we may be only training 10 teachers. In Cleveland Metropolitan School District we have trained over 1200 teachers (all teachers in preschool through Grade 5 in 72 schools). The cost per district and the cost per school vary, based on the scope of implementation. There are cost savings per unit (per classroom) as the number of classrooms/teachers being trained at a given site increases. |
| A2. Start-up costs | |
Initial training costs | Initial 2-day training ($2000 per day) = $4000 plus travel/per diem for trainer, for a group of approximately 30 teachers. |
| Curriculum costs | The PATHS Curriculum is published by Channing-Bete. The cost depends on the grade level, but the average is $350-600/classroom. PATHS Program |
| Licensing costs | None |
| Initial planning requirements & cost considerations | Initial planning to discuss program implementation with administrators may take 1-3 days, $1000 per day. However, this depends on the scale of implementation. If one school is initiating PATHS, the planning is done via phone calls (usually no more than 8 hours). If a large school district is initiating PATHS system-wide, the planning process typically requires several visits (5-10 days) |
| Space requirements & cost considerations | Teachers are trained in a group; group training requires a meeting room/classroom with power-point and LCD projector. |
| A3. Intervention implementation costs | |
| Ongoing material costs | We suggest about $100/ year per class for replacement, copying of activity sheets, feeling faces, poster replacement, book purchase costs, etc. |
| Administration requirements & cost considerations | |
| Staffing requirements & cost considerations | The program is implemented by classroom teachers. We strongly recommend the use of a local coach to support implementation by teachers, particularly during their first year of implementation. Coaches are usually experienced teachers and they are usually assigned to about 20-40 classrooms depending upon the grade levels, number of schools and their proximity, etc. Coaches visit, address questions, team teach, and review implementation issues with teachers at least every two weeks in each classroom during the first year of program implementation. They also meet with principals regularly and help to support school-wide implementation. Coaches also can be trained to help support staff within the school be actively involved in PATHS. Also, PATHS Education Worldwide will supply a no-cost curriculum to support parenting sessions. |
| Transportation requirements & cost considerations | NA |
| Space requirements & cost considerations | Intervention is implemented by teachers in their classrooms. If coaches are hired, space is needed for coach office. |
| A4. Implementation support and fidelity monitoring costs | |
| Ongoing training costs | We recommend a day of “booster” training mid-way through the first year of implementation ($2000 plus travel/per diem for a trainer.) There is often a need for replacement training in subsequent years for new teachers. |
| We have a formal process for training local coaches to be trainers that takes about 3 years. | |
| Fidelity monitoring costs | We supply fidelity measures; there is no additional cost. |
| Technical assistance costs | Local coaches are supported by ongoing phone calls and visits by PATHS national certified trainers. Phone consultation is $100/hr. Trainer visits are $2000/day plus travel/per diem for trainer. |
| B. Program funding | |
| B1. Financing Strategies | |
| Federal Formula or Discretionary Grant Funding | Some schools have received funding for this program from education block grant dollars. Some schools have applied literacy funds for low performing schools to support this program. |
| State and Local Funding | Yes, school boards often allocate district funding to support this program. |
| Foundation Grants and Public-Private Partnerships | Yes, some schools have received foundation grants to support program implementation. |
| Fee for Service | No, this is a universal program. |
| B2. Program finance examples | We have numerous sites in Pennsylvania that are funded by PA Commission on Crime. Other sites (for example, Cleveland) also have state funding in the area of crime prevention. |
| B3. Funding considerations and challenges | The biggest funding challenge is to garner support for local coaching and support for continued implementation. |
Fast Track Friendship Group Program
Contact Person: Karen Bierman, Ph.D. at kb2@psu.edu or Sandra Stewart at sls34@psu.edu
| A. Program costs | |
| A1. Unit cost for implementation with source of data | The cost to implement per group depends on several factors, as noted below. Costs include: 1) the wages for leader (which includes planning time, implementation, recording, follow-through, and supervision time), 2) the wages for co-leader (2 hours per group), 3) manuals for leader and co-leader ($35 each), 4) supply bin for each leader ($100 each), 5) material costs per child ($5), and 6) training and ongoing supervision costs. |
| Costs for manuals, training, planning and supervision are incurred at the level of the leader. If a leader runs multiple groups, the cost per group is lower. | |
| We estimate that a leader puts in 5 hours per group session to run one Friendship Group program; but can run concurrent Friendship Groups with an additional 2-3 hours per group. | |
| A2. Start-up costs | |
| Initial training costs | Initial 1-day training ($2000 per day) plus travel/per diem for trainer, with a second 1-day booster training recommended. |
| Curriculum costs | The Friendship Group manual is published by Guilford at a cost of $35 per manual: |
| Social and Emotional Skills Training for Children | |
| Licensing costs | NA |
| Initial planning requirements & cost | Initial planning costs depend upon the scope of the planned implementation. |
| Space requirements & cost considerations | Group leaders and co-leaders are trained in a group setting; group training requires a meeting room/classroom with PowerPoint and DVD playback capacity. |
| Other important start-up costs to consider | Each group leader needs a supply bin of games and materials to use in group sessions (approximately $100 each); handouts and activities must be printed for each child for each session = approximately $5 per child for the program. |
| A3. Intervention implementation costs | |
| Ongoing material costs (i.e. program materials that must be purchased on an ongoing basis beyond initial purchases) | Supply bins of games and materials need to be refreshed and restocked each year (approximately $50 per bin); handouts and activities must be printed for each child for each session = approximately $5 per child each year. |
| Administration requirements & cost considerations | We recommend an on-site program coordinator and supervisor. Depending upon the scope of the program, this individual may also run Friendship Groups. This person handles the recruitment and screening of children for the group, the coordination with schools and scheduling, holds regular supervision meetings to review program implementation with group leaders, and on occasion visits and observes groups to check implementation fidelity and provide feedback. |
| Staffing requirements & cost considerations | Friendship Group leaders need a teaching or mental health background (B.A. degree or equivalent experience), and comfort working with children in groups, along with the specialized training in this program. A pilot program is suggested for staff new to Friendship Group, to give them experience with the program prior to full implementation. If strong supervisory support is available, paraprofessionals may also be trained to run groups. |
| Transportation requirements & cost considerations | If sessions are held at school during the school day, no transportation is needed (although staff may need to travel to different buildings.) If sessions are held after-school or on a week-end, children may require transportation to and from groups. |
| Space requirements & cost considerations | A separate room is necessary for group sessions. This need not be a large room, but large enough for a small group to form a circle, play games, and sit at a table. |
| Other important implementation costs | After-school and weekend programs may need to serve a snack during group sessions. |
| A4. Implementation support and fidelity monitoring costs | |
| Ongoing training costs | There is a 1-day booster training held midway through the year ($2000 plus trainer travel/per diem.) We strongly recommend the use of a local program coordinator/supervisor to support program implementation. We are in the process of developing procedures to train and certify Friendship Group supervisors. |
| Fidelity monitoring costs | We have measures that can be used by program staff to monitor fidelity; there is no cost. |
| Technical assistance costs | Technical assistance is provided via phone calls and visits by Friendship Group certified trainers. Phone consultation is $100/hr. Trainer visits are $2000/day plus travel/per diem for trainer. These trainers can also watch DVDs to provide back-up support and reliability for fidelity monitoring at the cost of $100/hr. |
| Other implementation support and fidelity monitoring costs to consider | The annual process of outreach to schools and parents, soliciting permissions for screening children for inclusion in the program, recruiting normative peer pairs, organizing schedules, and modifying group composition occurs each year as part of program implementation. |
| B. Program funding | |
| B1. Financing Strategies | |
| Federal Formula or Discretionary Grant Funding) | Conceivably, yes. This has been a source of funding for several dissemination projects using Friendship Group. |
| Federal Entitlement Funding (Medicaid and Title IV-E) | Conceivably, this is a potential source of funding, as children qualify for Friendship Group on the basis of a significant social-emotional and/or behavioral need for an indicated level of service. However, we do not know of any site that is currently using this kind of funding to support Friendship Group. |
| State and Local Funding | Conceivably, yes. One dissemination in Canada has been funded largely by a combination of provincial funding and private donations. |
| Foundation Grants and Public-Private Partnerships | Conceivably, yes. One dissemination in Canada has been funded largely by a combination of provincial funding and private donations. Another dissemination in Ireland has been funded by a combination of foundation funding and private donations. |
| Fee for Service | Conceivably, yes. |
Fast Track Parent Group Program
Contact Person: Robert McMahon, Ph.D. at rjmcmaho@sfu.ca
| A. Program costs | |
| A1. Unit cost for implementation with source of data | |
| A2. Start-up costs | |
| Initial training costs | Initial 2-day training = $4000 plus travel/per diem for trainer. |
| Curriculum costs | Manuals for group leaders = approximately $100 per manual |
| Licensing costs | NA |
| Initial planning requirements & cost considerations | Initial planning to discuss program implementation with administrators may take 1-3 days, $1000 per day. |
| Space requirements & cost considerations | Group leaders are trained in a group; group training requires a meeting room/classroom with power-point and DVD playback capacity. |
| Other important start-up costs to consider | Handouts and worksheets must be printed for each parent for each session = approximately $10 per parent. |
| A3. Intervention implementation costs | |
| Ongoing material costs (i.e. program materials that must be purchased on an ongoing basis beyond initial curriculum purchases) | Handouts must be printed for each parent for each session = approximately $10 per parent per year. |
| Administration requirements & cost considerations | We recommend an on-site program coordinator and supervisor. Depending upon the scope of the program, this individual may also run Parent Groups. This person handles the recruitment and screening of parents for the group, holds regular supervision meetings to review program implementation with group leaders, and on occasion visits and observes groups to check implementation fidelity and provide feedback. |
| Staffing requirements & cost considerations | Parent Group leaders should be trained mental health staff (M.A. degree or equivalent experience), with background and expertise in the area of behavioural treatments and working with parents of children with behavior problems. A pilot program and/or serving as a co-leader is suggested for staff new to Parent Group, to give them experience with the program prior to full implementation. |
| Transportation requirements & cost considerations | Parents can be asked to provide their own transportation. If the program is being implemented with very disadvantaged families, parents may require transportation to and from groups (and perhaps childcare for target children and siblings). |
| Space requirements & cost considerations | A separate, soundproof room is necessary for group sessions. This need not be a large room, but needs to protect parent confidentiality. |
| Other important implementation costs to consider | The provision of child care and refreshments are added optional costs. Depending upon the time of day, snacks or a light meal may be provided. |
| A4. Implementation support and fidelity monitoring costs | |
| Ongoing training costs | There is a 1-day booster training held mid-way through the year ($2000 plus trainer travel/per diem.) We strongly recommend the use of a local program coordinator/supervisor to support program implementation. We plan to develop procedures to train and certify Parent Group supervisors. |
| Fidelity monitoring costs | We have measures that can be used by program staff to monitor fidelity; there is no cost. |
| Technical assistance costs | Technical assistance is provided via phone calls and visits by Parent Group certified trainers. Phone consultation is $100/hr. Trainer visits are $2000/day plus travel/per diem for trainer. These trainers can also watch DVDs to provide back-up support and reliability for fidelity monitoring at the cost of $100/hour. |
| Other implementation support and fidelity monitoring costs to consider | The annual process of outreach to schools and parents, recruiting parents, and organizing schedules occurs each year as part of program implementation. |
| B. Program funding | |
| B1. Financing Strategies | |
| Federal Formula or Discretionary Grant Funding) | Conceivably, yes. This has been a source of funding for several dissemination projects using Parent Group. |
| Federal Entitlement Funding (Medicaid and Title IV-E) | Conceivably, this is a potential source of funding, as parents are eligible for Parent Group if their children are experiencing significant levels of aggressive, oppositional, or defiant behavior at home and school that places them at-risk for chronic externalizing disorders. |
| State and Local Funding | Conceivably, yes. One dissemination in Canada has been funded largely by a combination of provincial funding and private donations. |
| Foundation Grants and Public-Private Partnerships | Conceivably, yes. One dissemination in Canada has been funded largely by a combination of provincial funding and private donations. |
| Fee for Service | Conceivably, yes. |